One of my recent coding experiences was teach a friend in grad school(MA) to code sufficiently well to finish his Master's project.
Refactoring was absolutely necessary for this. He was writing a single simulation program that was single file in size. But once he'd created ten subroutines all changing a raft of the global variables, the slightest changes produced hair-raising bugs that he'd obsessively dive into debugging.
The intuitions of structured programming and object oriented are more important than absolute fidelity. My points were: "If you can't have an object here, at least have a well defined, standard interface to values that need to be in a consistent state" and "decompose long action sequences into subroutines and if you can't do that, least group similar actions with similar actions in that long action sequence".
Which is to say a given piece of code might not the structure you want but if has a structure, that can be enough. But then again, that piece of code might not structure at all and then rewriting it really is necessary and often is easier than debugging it a few time.
And working with a large piece of "bad" corporate code, I've more than once that you something with one sensible if idiosyncratic structure that was refactored more than once by people who didn't understand the structure and imposed their own structure on just part of the code. But through an exercise in archeology, one can make the whole artifact work.
But that doesn't mean you can't have code that is a true mess when the writer has no experience and no concern with structure.