E.P.A. Finds More VW Cheating Software, Including in Porsches

PS: Low end torque is really just a transmission problem. X(1) power at Y(1) RPM > X(2) power at Y(2) RPM.

Most people have a (perceived) fixed distance of driving they need to drive. A 10% reduction in mileage won't have drivers biking 1 day every other week.

Whenever the topic of automotive software comes up on HN there are comments alongs the lines of "global variables bad", but not much construtive feedback.

I want to explain some of the tradeoffs that lead to the architecture used in automotive software to get a better discussion going with HN readers about that architecture.

tl;dr Given the hardware restrictions, real-time requirements and measurement capabilities required in automotive software, shared global variables without locks is a fast and safe way to share state between different software components as long as each variable is only written in one place in the program.

The microprocessor has to run for 10+ years in a wide range of temperatures and be dirt cheap, so you end up with specs like 180 MHz, 4 MB of flash and 128 KB of RAM.

The program must run deterministicly with respect to memory. There is no malloc/new in the code. All variables are statically allocated.

Because the physical world doesn't pause, no code is allowed to block while waiting for resources, especially synchronization primitives like mutexes.

The software architecture is in 2 main parts: basic software containing the real-time OS and hardware drivers, and the application layer which has the domain-specific code for controlling the engine, brakes, etc.

The basic software is implemented using usual C programming techniques. It has an API provided by function calls and structs to hide implementation details of each microcontroller.

The application software is where the programming model is different.

To understand why, you need to know where automotive software comes from and what it is trying to acheive.

Originally all controllers were mechanical: a valve opens proportionally to the vacuum in a part of the system. Then some controllers were implemented in analog electronics: take multiple voltages, feed them through an op-amp and use the output to control a valve.

So automotive software reproduces this: get some inputs, compute the same physical equations at a regular rate and generate outputs.

This is dataflow programming. Blocks of code have inputs and outputs. They are executed at a fixed rate that depends on the physical phenomena (air flow changes fast, temperature changes slowly). Different blocks are conneceted together in a hierachical way to form subsystems. Encapsulation is acheived by viewing these blocks as black boxes: you don't need to care how the block works if you are only interested in knowing which inputs it uses and outputs it produces.

Here's an example component to control a gizmo.

It might be implemented in a visual environment like Simulink by MathWorks, or it implemented by hand from a spec.

  #include "GizmoController_data.h"
  
  void GizmoController_100ms() {
    Gizmo_Gain = interpolate2d(Gizmo_Gain_MAP, EngineSpeed, CoolantTemp);
  }
  
  void GizmoController_10ms() {
    Gizmo_Error = Gizmo_PositionDesired - Gizmo_Position;
    Gizmo_DutyCycle = limit(Gizmo_Gain * Gizmo_Error + Gizmo_Offset_VAL, 0, 100);
  }

The header GizmoController_data.h is auto-generated at compile time by a tool from the XML file mentioned above. It will contain global variable definitions for the inputs, intermediates and outputs with the appropriate volatile, const, static and extern storage classes/type qualifiers. This ensures that the compiler will enforce that inputs can't be written to, intermediate values are private to the component and outputs can be read by other modules.

Note that no explicit synchronization is needed to access inter-process variables like Gizmo_Gain or inter-component variables like Gizmo_Position. It's shared memory between 2 processes scheduled in OS tasks that can potentially interrupt each other, but since the write is atomic and happens only in one place, there is no data race. This is huge! Concurrent programming, without locks, with the best efficiency possible, using a simple technique anybody can understand: only one place in the program is allowed to write to any global memory location.

Calibration is another aspect of automotive software. In most software the constants either never change or can be set in some kind of configuration file. For an automotive controller, the value of constants (gains, offsets, limits, etc) depend on the vehicle so they must be configurable at run time during development. This is implemented in the C code by putting all constants in a memory area that is ROM in production units, but RAM in development units. The compiler enforces that application software cannot change constants, but the basic software includes code so that constants can be changed from the outside in development. This process is called calibration and is done by calibration engineers who are usually not the ones who wrote the software. Note that calibration can drastically affect the behavior of the software. What would happen if Gizmo_Gain_MAP is set to all zeros?

Measurement of variables is essential to understanding what's going on inside the embedded controller. Having all that state available in global variables makes it possible for the calibration tool request the value of any variable in the software at a fixed rate and display it in a virtual oscilloscope.

The measurement and calibration tool needs to know how to access the variables and constants. It uses a file that maps from names to addresses for a particular version of software. That file can easily be generated a compile time since all allocations are static.

Going back to the architecture of the application software, let's look at where our gizmo controller fits. It is not the only component needed to make the gizmo work. You also need components to calculate the gizmo position from some external signal (let's say an analog voltage), to route the output signal to the powerstage driver on the PCB, to determine which position the gizmo should currently occupy. These would form the gizmo subsystem package.

When the supplier releases gizmo 2.0 (TM) they upgrade the input signal to be a PWM input instead of an analog input. Modularity in the software allows the software team to simply replace the gizmo position component with one that reads a PWM instead of an analog voltage and keep the rest of the gizmo subsystem the same. In the future, projects that use gizmo 1.0 use one version of the gizmo subsystem and projects that use 2.0 use another.

This is true at any level in the hierarchy: as long as the inputs and outputs are the same, a component or subystem package can be replaced by another.

Version control in automotive software reflects this. Instead of having one tree of versions and releases like a typical software project, each component, subsystem package and software project has its own tree of versions. Each software project will reference the subsystem packages required for their engine type, vehicle platform, sensors and actuators, etc. This is how code reuse is acheived.

Testing is a mix of simulation (the sensor/actuator is simulated in Simulink and connected to Simulink block diagram of the software component), hardware-in-the-loop (a computer simulates the vehicle, but the real electronic control unit is used) and vehicle testing.

Thanks for reading. I hope this improves your understanding of how automotive software is structured.

I'm hoping the discussion will bring examples from other fields like robotics, drones and aeronautics that have similar real-time requirements on how they architect their software.

You're talking about something affecting maybe tens of thousands of trucks, versus 11+ million vehicles including Porsche. It doesn't make sense to make the comparison.

There is some chance that better testing will result in lower emissions standards, if the better tests reveal the existing standards to be unrealistic.