That reminds me of this 2020 study of dentists in Switzerland, previously discussed on HN in January 2023:
HN: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=34322194
Study: "Health Services as Credence Goods: a Field Experiment" -- https://academic.oup.com/ej/article-abstract/130/629/1346/57... (full study available on SciHub)
[Note: Credence goods are goods whose qualities cannot be ascertained by consumers even after purchase, or where an expert knows more about the quality a consumer needs than the consumer himself.]
> We present the results from a field experiment in the market for dental care: a test patient who does not need treatment is sent to 180 dentists to receive treatment recommendations.
> In the experiment, we vary the socio-economic status of the patient and whether a second opinion signal is sent. Furthermore, measures of market, practice and dentist characteristics are collected.
> We observe an overtreatment recommendation rate of 28% and a striking heterogeneity in treatment recommendations.
> Furthermore, we find significantly fewer overtreatment recommendations for patients with higher socio-economic status compared with lower socio-economic status for standard visits, suggesting a complex role for patients’ socio-economic status.
> Competition intensity, measured by dentist density, does not have a significant influence on overtreatment. Dentists with shorter waiting times are more likely to propose unnecessary treatment.